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Behaviorist Views of Learning

Introduction to Learning (Behaviorism or Behaviorist view)

  • Definition: Learning as a relatively permanent change in observable behavior as a result of experience.
  • The “Black Box” Metaphor: Behaviorists argued that because we cannot objectively observe a thought or a feeling, we should treat the mind as a “black box.” A black box is a system where you can see the input (what goes in) and the output (what comes out), but the internal workings are invisible or irrelevant to the observer. We don’t need to know what’s happening inside to understand, predict, or change behavior. This is why behaviorists prioritize measurable actions over internal mental processes.
  • Key Assumptions:
    • Learning processes are similar across species and the role of the environment.
    • Science requires data that multiple people can observe and verify.
    • For example:
      • If I say I am “motivated,” you have no way to measure that directly. However, if I finish 10 math problems in 5 minutes, we have a measurable, objective fact. Behaviorists believed that by focusing only on what could be seen, they were making psychology a “hard science” like physics or chemistry.
      • A teacher who believes in behaviorist perspective will explain that students study because, in the past, studying was followed by a high grade (Positive Reinforcement).

Behavioral theories: Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning

I. Classical Conditioning (Stimulus-Response Learning)

Focuses on involuntary, emotional, or physiological responses.

  • Two key figures in Classical Conditioning:
    • 1) Ivan Pavlov
      • The Pavlovian Foundation: Ivan Pavlov’s accidental discovery with dogs (he mechanics of classical conditioning with dogs)
  • 2) John B Watson
    • Father of Behaviorism: The man who brought classical conditioning into the human world. He is often called the “Father of Behaviorism” because he applied the mechanics of classical conditioning with children.
    • Watson wanted to prove that “nurture” (the environment) was more powerful than “nature” (instinct). He set out to condition a phobia into an 11-month-old infant known as Albert.
      • Before Conditioning: Albert showed no fear of a white rat (Neutral Stimulus). He only showed a natural fear of loud noises (Unconditioned Stimulus).
    • The Conditioning: Every time Albert reached for the white rat, Watson would strike a steel bar with a hammer behind the boy’s head.
    • The Result: After only seven pairings, Albert would burst into tears and crawl away at the mere sight of the rat, even without the loud noise.

  • Key Components of classical conditioning:
    • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS) & Response (UCR): Natural, unlearned triggers (e.g., food leading to drool OR loud noise leading to fear).
    • Neutral Stimulus (NS): A trigger that initially means nothing (e.g., a bell OR a white rat).
    • Conditioned Stimulus (CS) & Response (CR): The learned association (e.g., bell leading to drool OR a white rat leading to fear).

  • Core Concepts:
    • Acquisition or Shaping: The “pairing” phase.
    • Extinction: What happens when the CS is presented without the UCS.
      • It is the process by which a learned response is weakened and eventually disappears. It occurs when the “rules” of the environment change, and the expected outcome no longer follows the trigger.
    • Generalization (This is John B Watson’s contribution): It is a phenomenon in learning where a subject responds to a new stimulus in the same way they respond to a known conditioned stimulus, simply because the two are similar.
      • Example: Watson found that Albert didn’t just fear the white rat; he became terrified of anything white and furry such as a rabbit, a dog, a sealskin coat, a teddy bear and even a Santa Claus mask with a white beard. Fears are learned, not necessarily innate. Once a fear is learned, it can “bleed over” into similar objects or situations.
    • Discrimination: It occurs when a specific stimulus is consistently followed by an Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS), while a similar stimulus is consistently not followed by it.
      • Example: Imagine a dog is conditioned to salivate to a specific bell tone (1000 Hz) (The Stimulus). You ring a slightly different bell by lowering the tone (900 Hz) (The Variation). If the 1000 Hz bell is always followed by food, the dog salivates. If the 900 Hz bell is never followed by food, the dog eventually learns to ignore it (The Learning Process). The dog has “discriminated” between the two tones. 1000Hz = food, 900Hz = no food (The Result)
    • Spontaneous recovery: It is a phenomenon where a previously extinguished response suddenly reappears after a period of rest.
      • It proves that extinction is not “unlearning” or erasing a memory; rather, it is the brain learning to suppress a behavior. The original association is still tucked away in the “black box,” waiting for a chance to resurface.

II. Operant Conditioning (Response-Stimulus Learning)

Focuses on voluntary behaviors shaped by consequences.

  • Thorndike’s Law of Effect: Behaviors followed by pleasant outcomes are strengthened.
  • B.F. Skinner’s Contributions: The Skinner Box and the shift from “respondent” to “operant” behavior.
  • Premack’s Principle (by David Premack): Premack’s core idea was that high-probability behaviors (things we want to do) can be used to reinforce low-probability behaviors (things we don’t want to do). Example: You have to eat your vegetables before you can have dessert.

  • The Mechanics of Consequences:
    • Reinforcement (Increasing Behavior):
      • Positive reinforcement: Adding a reward to increase desirable behavior (e.g. a token for submitting homework)
        • Negative reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase desirable behavior (e.g., the seatbelt chime stopping (unpleasant stimulus) when we wear seatbelt (desirable behavior).
    • Punishment (Decreasing Behavior):
      • Positive punishment or also known as Type I punishment: Add a negative stimulus to decrease undesirable behavior (e.g. give a fine (denda) for late registration). Fine is negative or unpleasant stimulus and late registration is undesirable behavior that we want to decrease.
        • Negative or also known as Type II punishment): Removal of pleasant stimulus (e.g. taking away a privilege of using family car when coming back after curfew hours). Privilege of using family car is pleasant stimulus, and coming back late (after curfew) is undesirable behaviour.

  • Schedules of Reinforcement:
    • Continuous vs. Intermittent (Fixed Ratio, Variable Ratio, Fixed Interval, Variable Interval).

Examples of intermittent reinforcement in real life:

Fixed ratio: Retail Loyalty Programs (e.g. Buy 10 coffees, get the 11th free)

Variable ratio: Gambling or playing a claw-machine (we do not know when we will hit the jackpot or win something)

Fixed interval: The Monthly Paycheck (we will know when we will get our pay)

Variable interval: Fishing (we do not know when any fish will take the bite. Fish don’t bite on a fixed timer.) or listening to our favorite radio station waiting for favorite songs to play (we do not know when the songs will be played but normally even though the DJs may already inform when they will play the songs, yet, we will keep waiting because the time is not fixed).

Educational Application:

  • We can understand how “math anxiety” or school phobia is often classically conditioned.
  • Learning can occur with different effects either discrimination or generalization. While discrimination is about being “picky,” generalization is about being “broad.”
  • Context Matters: A behavior might be extinguished in one setting (at school) but still occur in another (at home)
  • As a teacher, if you notice that a student loves drawing but dislikes math, you can apply operant conditioning (taking Premack’s principle into consideration) such as by giving instruction “Once you finish these five math problems, you can spend ten minutes working on your drawing.” (The Application). In this regard, drawing (the high-probability behavior) reinforces math (the low-probability behavior) (The Result).

Cara penulisan Peneguhan Konsep

Fasa Peneguhan Konsep ialah fasa murid meneguhkan kefahaman mereka tentang konsep yang dipelajari melalui aktiviti pembelajaran selepas penerangan oleh guru di fasa Pengembangan Konsep. Oleh yang demikian, penulisan penerangan fasa ini perlu menonjolkan bagaimana aktiviti itu “mengunci” konsep. Aktiviti pembelajaran berkaitan dengan Peneguhan Konsep mestikan didasari oleh PAK21 dan teori pembelajaran seperti kognitivisme dan konstruktivisme. Oleh yang demikian penulisan penerangan Peneguhan Konsep perlu menitikberatkan elemen: kolaboratif, justifikasi danvisualisasi.

Penulisan Peneguhan Konsep bergantung kepada jenis aktiviti pembelajaran yang ingin dilaksanakan. Terdapat beberapa aktiviti pembelajaran yang boleh dilaksanakan bergantung kepada kesesuaian tajuk. Durasi: 7 minit

  1. Aktiviti Bersifat “Synthesis” (Sintesis)
    Murid tidak hanya menyebut fakta, tetapi menggabungkan fakta menjadi satu kesimpulan. Murid boleh menggunakan bahan tertentu ketika aktiviti dilaksanakan.

Saranan Penulisan: “Dengan menggunakan aktiviti Think-Pair-Share (elemen Kolaboratif), murid secara berpasangan (2-3 orang murid) mensintesis maklumat daripada pelbagai sumber untuk membina satu hujah sokongan mengapa bahan tertentu dipilih berdasarkan sifatnya (elemen Justifikasi). Hasil perbincangan dipersembahkan dalam bentuk Peta Pemikiran (Concept map) atau Lakaran Grafik (elemen visualisasi) di atas kertas lembaran kerja untuk memperkukuh perkaitan antara sifat fizikal bahan dengan fungsinya”

Saranan Penulisan: Murid diberikan satu projek kecil atau sampel bahan (cth: papan kayu) untuk diproses (elemen visualisasi). Berdasarkan lukisan projek, murid perlu memilih secara fizikal peralatan yang tepat di stor alatan (cth: memilih gergaji jig untuk memotong bentuk lengkung). Murid melakukan aktiviti memotong, membentuk, dan membuat kemasan pada bahan tersebut mengikut langkah kerja yang telah dipelajari. Murid menjelaskan pemilihan alatan kepada rakan sebaya tentang proses sesuatu memotong/membentuk/membuat kemasan (elemen Justifikasi dan kolaboratif).

  1. Aktiviti Bersifat “Peer-Teaching” (Bimbingan Rakan Sebaya yang melebihi 3 orang. Bilangan ahli: 4-5 orang)
    • Nota: Aktiviti bersifat “Peer-teaching” agak memakan masa. Sesuai digunakan bagi sesi PdPC berdurasi 60 minit. Fasa Peneguhan Konsep berdurasi 10-15 minit sekiranya PdPC berdurasi 60 minit.
      Ini adalah peneguhan paling kuat. Apabila murid menerangkan kepada rakan, konsep mereka sendiri menjadi lebih kukuh.

Saranan Penulisan: “Melalui aktiviti ‘One Stay, Three Stray’ (elemen Kolaboratif), murid yang tinggal di kumpulan bertindak sebagai pakar untuk meneguhkan kefahaman rakan menerusi rujukan Peta Pemikiran atau Infografik (elemen Visualisasi) yang telah dihasilkan. Pakar membentangkan hujahan sokongan (elemen Justifikasi) mengenai pemilihan bahan binaan yang paling lestari, manakala ahli kumpulan lain mencatatkan maklumat baharu pada nota mereka.“

  1. Aktiviti Bersifat “Comparison” (Perbandingan)
    Peneguhan berlaku apabila murid perlu membezakan dua perkara yang hampir sama.

Saranan Penulisan: “Melalui aktiviti ‘Table Talkers’ (elemen Kolaboratif), murid membandingkan kesan jangka panjang penggunaan plastik berbanding kayu menggunakan Kad Banding Beza (elemen Visualisasi). Murid membina justifikasi pemilihan bahan paling lestari berdasarkan impak alam sekitar sebelum merumuskan dapatan mereka kepada kelas (elemen Justifikasi)”.

Nota: Table talkers memerlukan penyediaan Kad Table Talkers (kad arahan/soalan) untuk diletakkan di tengah meja setiap kumpulan. Ianya boleh dilaksanakan dalam ruangan yang terhad dan tidak memerlukan pergerakan murid. Ianya sesuai bagi tajuk yang memerlukan murid membuat pembandingan. Oleh yang demikian, kad arahan boleh disesuaikan seperti berikut:

Kad A (Ciri): “Bandingkan ketahanan kayu dan plastik terhadap cuaca.”

Kad B (Impak): “Antara kayu dan plastik, yang mana lebih sukar dilupuskan?”

Kad C (Justifikasi): “Bina satu hujah mengapa plastik dianggap kurang lestari walaupun ia tahan lama.”

Tips tambahan:

  1. Elakkan penulisan Peneguhan Konsep yang bersifat umum seperti “Murid berbincang dalam kumpulan tentang bahan lestari dan membentangkan hasil kerja untuk peneguhan konsep“.
  2. Pastikan penulisan Peneguhan Konsep mempunyai elemen ini: Kolaboratif (ciri PAK 21), Justifikasi (murid perlu memberikan penerangan yang menunjukkan kefahaman mereka), dan Visualisasi (murid menunjukkan bukti maujud kefahaman mereka. Lembaran kerja boleh digunakan bagi tujuan ini).
  3. Contoh penulisan Peneguhan Konsep yang mempunyai ketiga elemen tersebut:
    • Murid melakukan aktiviti membuat keputusan (‘Decision Making’) dalam kumpulan untuk memilih satu bahan binaan yang paling seimbang dari segi kekuatan dan kelestarian (elemen Kolaboratif). Setiap kumpulan mempertahankan (defend) pilihan mereka dalam sesi perbincangan kelas, manakala guru memberikan maklum balas segera untuk membetulkan sebarang salah faham sifat bahan (elemen Justifikasi). Murid melengkapkan Peta Pemikiran di atas kertas Mahjung sebagai bukti pengukuhan kaitan antara Ciri Bahan -> Fungsi -> Impak Alam Sekitar (elemen Visualisasi)

PREVIU PROGRAM DOKTOR PENDIDIKAN (EdD)Fakulti Sains Pendidikan dan Teknologi, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

 Ambilan Semester 2 Sesi 2025/2026 (Mac 2026)

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Week 2: Tales for Tots 3.0

Prof Karim: Let’s use this prompt: Create character image of different styles. I put the prompt in the chat box, so you can copy-paste it in your device. I want you to create 20 images using different styles. That’s your homework for this week.

Everybody including me: (typing in silent)

I ended up with this adorable image of a chubby orange cat sharing an umbrella with a tiny bird on a rainy da, a scene so unexpectedly sweet that it melted my heart on the spot.

But here’s the thing: I don’t even have an orange cat. So as cute as it was, a part of me wished the image looked a little more like one of my five actual cats. After all, if I’m going to create storybook magic, it might as well feature the real stars of my household!

AI tool: Google AI Studio

AI tool: DALLE (ChatGPT)

AI tool: ImageFx

Using ImageFx, I created another image using a different prompt: Crete an inspired Van Gogh image of a black and white British short hair cat building a city of colorful blocks or black and white blocks.

How cute is that, right?

So… where is my homework, you ask?
Well, this is my Homework Version 4.0, freshly updated, slightly polished, and proudly presentable.

There are many versions, but let’s just say it was created before I discovered the importance of having a proper “theme.” It’s a little too raw (and a little too random!) for public viewing, so I think I’ll keep that one safely tucked away for my eyes only.

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Why We Avoid Simple Tasks and Embrace Challenging Ones: Understanding and Overcoming Task Avoidance

I have been avoiding this “thing” for quite some time (really, years!). First, I’m conscious that I’m not as motivated as others. For me, there are considerably more critical and urgent tasks that I must complete. This “thing” does not fall within that category. I confess that it has been more than five years since I was “urged”, “forced”, “warned”, or “suggested” and “penalized” for noncompliance. But should I care? I have a lot on my plate, and I know that in order to manage my stress, I must make wise choices.

But recently, one of my best friends (who is also a psychologist) asked a question that made me reconsider my decision. “Would you rather stay in this situation for years to come, or do it once and for all and stop worrying about it? I know it’s not what you want or desire, but just do it. There’s no harm in trying. I admit that it is time-consuming. So, just ask someone to do it and you’ll pay them.” Seeing that I was deep in thought for a few seconds, she said, “Looking at how you keep harping on it, it appears that you are stressed and this is bothering you, right? You should know better how to overcome or coping with stress. Avoiding this thing seems does not working for you. How long are you going to avoid this?”

As I read my students’ assignments (Personality Psychology course), I am aware that at the core of this paradox lies the concept of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation. As Deci and Ryan suggest (famous for Self-Determination Theory) the tasks that align with our values, interests, and sense of autonomy tend to be more intrinsically motivating. When we view a task as purposeful or connected to our identity, we are more likely to engage with it, even if it is difficult. Conversely, tasks that feel imposed, irrelevant, or emotionally aversive would lead us to feel lack off this internal drive. Thus, it makes us prone to avoid the tasks regardless of how easy they might be. One of my seniors told me “If you do it continuously on yearly basis, it is not that difficult. You just need to be consistent”. Well, in my case, I know that emotional aversion also plays a major role as well. Even a simple task like organizing files or updating one or two information can trigger discomfort which can lead to boredom, anxiety, or fear of judgment. Our brain is wired to seek pleasure and avoid pain, so naturally we would resist these uncomfortable emotions. As a result, procrastination becomes a form of short-term emotional regulation which allow us to escape the task temporarily.

I cannot deny that the perceived value and immediacy of rewards make challenging tasks that provide a clear sense of progress, growth, or achievement, such as solving a complex problem or creating meaningful online quizzes, highly motivating, especially when we feel competent and engaged. These tasks induce a psychological state known as flow, a term coined by Csikszentmihalyi, in which we get profoundly immersed and motivated by the activity. A good illustration of this: Last week, I had three consecutive days of online TOT from 8 to 10 p.m. It was tough because I was physically exhausted. On the final day, I fasted (9 Muharram), thus having the TOT session after breaking fast and maghrib prayer was challenging. On top of that, we were assigned five assignments that must be accomplished by July 12, 2025. What was I thinking when I registered for the TOT session? I am in the middle of marking assignments, and another exam is scheduled for 11 July 2025, as well as a deadline for submitting the “dreadful task” on July 4, 2025. Nonetheless, I found it enticing to accomplish the five exercises given to us by our trainers within four hours on Sunday, 6 July 2025. Surprisingly, I felt no back ache after sitting for so long. Nonetheless, the “dreadful task” that I saw as irrelevant or disconnected from my personal goals feels like a waste of time, even if the benefits are immediate and obvious.

What kind of strategies that I can use to keep myself motivated to complete “dreadful task? I will share later.

Bahagian 1: Kursus Indeks Buku Ilmiah: Jumaat 23 Mei 2025

Penceramah: Prof Dr Rosli Hussin (Books Consultant and Commentator), Penerbit UTMPress.

Modul1: Pengenalan kepada Indeks

Indeks merujuk kepada satu sistem atau senarai yang digunakan untuk meyusun, mengatur dan mencari maklumat yang penting yang ingin ditekankan dalam pencarian maklumat oleh seorang pembaca dengan cepat. Indeks yang baik mestilah relevan, tepat dan berguna untuk pembaca.

Contoh-contoh indeks: Dalam buku – kata kunci atau topik penting yang disusun secara abjad dan disertakan nombor halaman. Boleh guna perisian https://www.scribendi.ai/cindex/ (Percuma sejak 2024).

Fungsi: Untuk menyusun data secara teratur, memudahkan pencarian maklumat, memberi rujukan cepat dan padat, menjadi penunjuk atau penanda kepada sesuatu perubahan, meningkatkan nilai rujukan buku, menunjukkan struktur dan kandungan buku, membantu dalam kajian atau penyelidikan,

Bilakah digunakan: Untuk mencari istilah atau topik spesifik, semasa menyiapkan tigasan atau kajian, semasa ulangkaji atau persediaan peperiksaan, semasa menulis atau menyemak fakta, bila menghadapi masalah atau persoalan teknikal,

Buku ilmiah perlu ada indeks sekiranya melebihi dari 45 muka surat.

Modul 2: Komponen indeks

Apa itu entri?: Merujuk kepada istilah/ topik/ tajuk utama/ subjek atau istilah utama (keyword) yang akan dicari oleh pembaca dalam indeks. Entri utama biasanya merujuk kepada konsep, tajuk, subjek, atau istilah yang lebih umum yang dibincangkan dalam buku.

Apa itu sub-entri?: Perincian kepada entri utama. Ianya topik lebih terperinci yang memberikan maklumat tambahan mengenai topik yang dijelaskan dalam entri utama.

Ciri indeks yang berkualiti:

  1. Ketepatan dan kesesuaian istilah
  2. Kelengkapan dan kebersihan indeks (tidak berbelit-belit)
  3. Penyusunan logik dan teratur (susunan abjad)
  4. Ketepatan nombor halaman
  5. Rujukan silang (cross referencing)
  6. Konsisten dalam penggunaan istilah
  7. Istilah yang seragam
  8. Keterbacaan dan aksesibiliti (mudah dijumpai)
  9. Indeks sesuai dengan audiens sasaran
  10. Kesesuaian dan keselarasan gaya penulisan (contoh: APA dsb.)

Bagaimana mengelakkan kekeliruan:

  1. Elakkan terlalu banyak sub-entri, bahagikan menjadi entri baru. Kalau ada tajuk yang tidak mempunyai banyak penerangan terperinci bermula dari abjad A atau B, tetapi ada penerangan terperinci bermula dari C, indeks bermula dari C.
  2. Pertimbangan hierarki entri
  3. Pastikan halaman adalah tepat
  4. Penggunaan sinonim dengan menggunakan rujukan silang (cross reference)
  5. Sub entri mestilah relevan dengan entri
  6. Elakkan menggunakan istilah yang umum seperti kajian, isu, masalah
  7. Menggunakan perisian yang efisien. Penggunaan Words tanpa kefahaman kritis tentang fungsi teknikal dalam Words akan menyebabkan entri atau sub entri yang terlalu banyak.

Contoh:

Ekonomi (entri utama)

  • Ekonomi global (sub entri)
  • Pertumbuhan ekonomi (sub entri)
  • Krisis kewangan 2008 (sub entri)

Cara membezakan entri utama dan sub entri: 1) Skop (entri lebih umum dan luas, sub entri lebih spesifik yang berkaitan dengan entri utama), 2) Kedudukan (entri utama di teltak di bahagian utama indeks, sub entri terletak di bawah entri utama untuk memberi perincian kepada indeks utama),

Rujukan silang (cross reference)

Merujuk kepada penunjuk suapaya dapat menjumpai maklumat untuk mengelakkan duplikasi

Jenis rujukan silang: “See” atau “lihat [Contoh: Bencana Alam lihat Alam sekitar]: Mengarah pembaca untuk topik yang masih lebih kurang sama, “See also” (Lihat juga): Mengarah pembaca kepada topik yang berkaitan yang mengandungi maklumat tambahan atau perspektif yang lebih luas [Contoh: Permeliharaan Alam, Lihat juga Perubahan Iklim], “See” dan “See also” dalam setengah kes, kedua-kedua jenis cross reference [Contoh: Pendidikan, Lihat Pengajaran, Pengajaran, Lihat juga Pendidikan] atau singkatan lih. j. Selain daripada itu, untuk ilustrasi seperti rajah, jadual dan sebagainya boleh guna i – ilustrasi rujuk fota pada entri/sub entri. [Contoh: Pendidikan, Lihat Pengajaran, Pengajaran, Lihat juga Pendidikan, i. ]

Manfaat rujukan silang

  1. Menghubungkan topik berkaitan
  2. Mengelakkan kekeliruan
  3. Meningkatkan pengalaman pembaca

Penunjuk lokasi (locator)

Pendidikan 1-2 (kalau ada nombor macam 12-15 atau 204-20 bermaksud penerangan satu topik yang ada beberapa sub-topik atau penerangan satu sub-topik yang melibatkan beberapa muka surat), Lihat Pengajaran 10, 20, 30

Maksimum 3 hingga 5 locator sahaja disyorkan untuk satu entri atau sub-entri. Sekiranya terlalu banyak locator, ianya akan mengelirukan pembaca. Halaman yang membincangkan konsep, kes, isu berkaitan perlu disertakan.

Modul 3:

Modul 4: Pembinaan indeks

Modul: Penilaian kualiti indeks

Modul 6: Pr

Modul 7: Etika

Modul 8:

Kesalahan umum

  1. Muka surat sukar dicari
  2. Wrong entry

Ciri yang baik

  1. Ada (See also) menunjukkan ada kaitan
  2. Rajah juga perlu diindeks

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