By Shahabuddin Amerudin

Early Beginnings (1832-1880s)

• The first triangulation survey in Malaysia was conducted in Penang (1832) by Lieutenant Woore of the British Royal Navy.
• In 1880, Sir Frederick Weld, Governor of the Straits Settlements, proposed introducing the Torrens System of land title registration (modeled after South Australia’s 1858 legislation).
• Sir W.E. Maxwell (Commissioner of Lands) was sent to Australia in 1882 to study the system and returned as its strong advocate, though initial proposals faced significant opposition.

Establishment of State Survey Departments (1885 onwards)

The need for accurate surveys to support land registration led to:

1. Johore Survey Department (1885)
   1. Established under Dato Yahya bin Awal-ed-din as Chief Surveyor (trained by Major McCallum in Singapore, 1868)
2. Perak Survey (1885)
   1. H.G. Deanne (a contract surveyor from Ceylon) was appointed by the Public Works Department, Perak to carry out the trigonometrical survey of Perak:
      1. Measurement of the 4.6-mile Larut baseline
      1. Astronomical determinations for latitude/azimuth near Taiping
3. Key Triangulation Networks (1886-1901)
   1. Penang & Province Wellesley surveys
   1. Malacca Triangulation (1886-1888)
   1. Major triangulation of Perak/Selangor (completed 1901)
   1. Negeri Sembilan surveys (commenced 1899)

Early Datums and Grid Systems

System	Details
Perak System	Referenced to Everest 1830 ellipsoid
Bukit Asa System	Referenced to Everest 1830 ellipsoid
Malay Grid	Origin: 4°00′N, 102°E	Scale: 1.0	False Easting: 500,000 yards
Johore Grid	Origin: 2°02′33.30″N, 103°33′45.93″E	Scale: 1.0	False Easting: 450,000 yards

(Note: Both grids used Indian Datum 1916 with Everest 1830 ellipsoid: a = 6,974,310 Indian Yards; 1/f = 300.80)

However, the quality of the early works were so inconsistent that it was decided to re-observe the principal triangles of the general triangulation with the object of bringing the work up to modern standards.

Primary (Repsold) Triangulation of Peninsular Malaysia (1916)

The foundational geodetic network for Peninsular Malaysia was completed in 1916 as the Primary or Repsold Triangulation, with its datum origin at Kertau. Key characteristics:

Datum Definition

• Astronomical determinations at Kertau:
  • Latitude (Φ) and azimuth were observed directly
• Longitude derivation:
  • Based on Λ₀ = 100°20′44.4″E for Fort Cornwallis Flagstaff, Penang (determined by Commander M. Field, 1893 via telegraphic signal exchange with Singapore’s Old Transit Circle)
  • Singapore’s longitude (fixed 1881 by Lt. Commander Green) referenced to Madras Observatory(Λ₀ = 80°14′51.51″E) (Bazley, 1945)

Survey Work in Colonial Malaya (1923-1945)

The Survey Department of the Federated Malay States and Straits Settlements (FMS&SS) conducted most of Malaya’s foundational surveying and mapping during this period.

Mapping Output

1. Topographic Maps
   1. Standard Scales:
      1. 1:31,680 (2 inches to 1 mile)
      1. 1:63,360 (1 inch to 1 mile)
   1. Coverage:
      1. Most areas: Detailed planetable surveys
      1. East coast: Less accurate sketch/reconnaissance surveys
2. Other Products
   1. City plans
   1. Small-scale maps
   1. State-wide planimetric maps

Legacy

While extensive, much of this work was replaced or updated after World War II. (Source: TM 5-248, Foreign Maps, 1963)

Early Grid Systems (Pre-1948)

Two Cassini-Soldner grids were used, both referenced to the Indian Datum of 1916 (Everest 1830 ellipsoid: a = 6,974,310 Indian Yards; 1/f = 300.80):

Parameter	Malay Grid	Johore Grid
Projection Origin	φ₀ = 4°00′N, λ₀ = 102°E	φ₀ = 2°02′33.30″N, λ₀ = 103°33′45.93″E
Scale Factor (m₀)	1.0	1.0
False Easting	500,000 yards	450,000 yards
False Northing	300,000 yards	300,000 yards

(Source: DMATC Form 5000–1, 6 December 1974)

Transition to Modern Systems

• This network is based on conventional observations, with many of the triangulation points dated as far back as 1885. 
• The MRT 1948 has been adopted as a result of the re-computations of the earlier network together with the Primary (Repsold) Triangulation carried out between 1913 and 1916.
• 1948: Introduced Malayan Revised Triangulation (MRT), replacing the older grids.
• The Malayan Revised Triangulation has been used for geodetic, mapping, cadastral, and several other activities since 1948 in Peninsular Malaysia. 
• This network consists of 77 geodetic, 240 primary, 837 secondary, and 51 tertiary stations. 
• 1968: After extensive re-measurements and recomputations, the system was refined as MRT68.
• Borneo’s Network: Operated under Borneo Triangulation (BT68), distinct from Peninsular Malaysia’s system.

The reference ellipsoid used for the MRT 1948 is the Modified Everest, where a = 6,377,304.063 mand 1/f = 300.8017, and the MRT 1948 datum origin is at Kertau, Pahang, where:

• Φ₀ = 03° 27′ 50.71″ North
• Λ₀ = 102° 37′ 24.55″ East of Greenwich

The map projection for Peninsular Malaysia is the Rectified Skew Orthomorphic (RSO), developed by the late Brigadier Martin Hotine specifically for Malaysia and Borneo. The Hotine RSO defining parameters for MRT 1948 consist of:

• Conversion Factor: 1 chain = 20.11678249 m (from Chainey & Benoit, 1896)
• Projection origin: φ₀ = 4° 00′ N, λ₀ = 102° 15′ E
• Scale Factor at Origin (m₀): 0.99984
• Basic/initial line of projection: Passes through the Skew Origin at an azimuth of γ₀ = −sin⁻¹(−0.6) or 323° 01′ 32.8458″
• False Easting: 804,671 m
• False Northing: zero

The Bursa-Wolf transformation from WGS84 to MRT48 (Kertau) listed by Aziz, W., Sahrum, M., and Teng, C. (in Cadastral Reform in Malaysia: A Vision to the 2000s) is as follows:

• ΔX = +379.776 m
• ΔY = −775.384 m
• ΔZ = +86.609 m
• Scale: Not given
• Rotations (left-handed convention):
  • Rₓ = +2.59674″
  • Rᵧ = +2.10213″
  • R_z = −12.11377″

(Note: The rotations as published follow the left-handed convention favored by most Europeans, opposite to the convention used by the U.S. and Australian militaries.)

According to TR 8350.2, the transformation parameters from “Kertau 1948 Datum” to WGS 84 Datum are:

• ΔX = −11 m ±10 m
• ΔY = +851 m ±8 m
• ΔZ = +5 m ±6 m

(The solution is based on six satellite stations. Notice the large magnitude of the ΔY component, likely due to errors in time transfers for longitude determination.)

Geodetic Datum of Malaysia 2000 (GDM2000) – Cassini-Soldner Grid Origins

GDM2000 redefines the Cassini-Soldner (cadastral) grid origins for each state in Peninsular Malaysia. Below are the updated parameters:

Johor State

• GPS Station: GP58, Institut Haiwan Kluang
• Origin Coordinates:
  • φ₀ = 02° 07′ 18.04708″ N
  • λ₀ = 103° 25′ 40.57045″ E
• Cassini Grid:
  • Northing = +8,758.320 m
  • Easting = –14,810.562 m
• Offset Values:
  • Northing = +8,758.320 m
  • Easting = –14,810.562 m

Negeri Sembilan & Melaka State

• GPS Station: GP10, K. Perindustrian Senawang, Seremban
• Origin Coordinates:
  • φ₀ = 02° 40′ 56.45149″ N
  • λ₀ = 101° 58′ 29.65815″ E
• Cassini Grid:
  • Northing = –4,240.573 m
  • Easting = +3,673.785 m
• Offset Values:
  • Northing = –3,292.026 m
  • Easting = +3,915.790 m

Pahang State

• GPS Station: GP31, Sek. Ren. Keb. Kuala Mai, Jerantut
• Origin Coordinates:
  • φ₀ = 03° 46′ 09.79712″ N
  • λ₀ = 102° 22′ 05.87634″ E
• Cassini Grid:
  • Northing = +6,485.858 m
  • Easting = –7,368.228 m
• Offset Values:
  • Northing = +6,485.858 m
  • Easting = –7,368.228 m

Selangor State

• GPS Station: 251D, Felda Soeharto, K. Kubu Baharu
• Origin Coordinates:
  • φ₀ = 03° 41′ 04.73658″ N
  • λ₀ = 101° 23′ 20.78849″ E
• Cassini Grid:
  • Northing = +56,464.049 m
  • Easting = –34,836.161 m
• Offset Values:
  • Northing = +503.095 m
  • Easting = –13,076.704 m

Terengganu State

• GPS Station: P253, Kg. Matang, Hulu Terengganu
• Origin Coordinates:
  • φ₀ = 04° 58′ 34.62672″ N
  • λ₀ = 103° 04′ 12.99225″ E
• Cassini Grid:
  • Northing = +3,371.895 m
  • Easting = +19,594.245 m
• Offset Values:
  • Northing = +3,371.895 m
  • Easting = +19,594.245 m

Penang & Seberang Perai State

• GPS Station: P314, TLDM Georgetown
• Origin Coordinates:
  • φ₀ = 05° 25′ 17.46315″ N
  • λ₀ = 100° 20′ 39.75707″ E
• Cassini Grid:
  • Northing = +62.283 m
  • Easting = –23.414 m
• Offset Values:
  • Northing = +62.283 m
  • Easting = –23.414 m

Kedah & Perlis State

• GPS Station: TG35, Gunung Perak, Kuala Muda
• Origin Coordinates:
  • φ₀ = 05° 57′ 52.82177″ N
  • λ₀ = 100° 38′ 10.93600″ E
• Cassini Grid:
  • Northing = 0 m
  • Easting = 0 m
• Offset Values:
  • Northing = 0 m
  • Easting = 0 m

Perak State

• GPS Station: TG26, Gunung Larut Hijau, Taiping
• Origin Coordinates:
  • φ₀ = 04° 51′ 32.62688″ N
  • λ₀ = 100° 48′ 55.47811″ E
• Cassini Grid:
  • Northing = +133,454.779 m
  • Easting = –1.769 m
• Offset Values:
  • Northing = +0.994 m
  • Easting = –1.769 m

Kelantan State

• GPS Station: P243, B. Polis Melor, Kota Bharu
• Origin Coordinates:
  • φ₀ = 05° 58′ 21.15717″ N
  • λ₀ = 102° 17′ 42.87001″ E
• Cassini Grid:
  • Northing = +8,739.894 m
  • Easting = +13,227.851 m
• Offset Values:
  • Northing = +8,739.894 m
  • Easting = +13,227.851 m

GDM2000 Rectified Skew Orthomorphic (RSO) Parameters

The new GDM2000 RSO for Peninsular Malaysia retains the same parameters as MRT48, except for:

• Azimuth of Initial Line (γ₀):
  • γ₀ = –sin⁻¹(–0.6) or 323° 01′ 32.86728″
• Reference Ellipsoid:
  • GRS 80 (a = 6,378,137 m; 1/f = 298.2572221)

Borneo Triangulation Network (Sabah & Sarawak)

Historical Background

The Borneo Triangulation (BT) network consists of:

1. Borneo West Coast Triangulation (Brunei & Sabah, 1930–1942)
2. Borneo East Coast Triangulation (Sarawak & Sabah extension, 1955–1960)
3. New points surveyed (1961–1968)

The network was established with its origin at Bukit Timbalai, Labuan Island (1948):

• Φ₀ = 05° 17′ 03.55″ North
• Λ₀ = 115° 10′ 56.41″ East (Greenwich)

Reference Ellipsoid (BT 1948)

• Modified Everest (variant):
  • Semi-major axis (a) = 6,377,298.556 m
  • Inverse flattening (1/f) = 300.8017

BT68 Readjustment

Conducted by the Directorate of Overseas Surveys (DOS), UK, BT68 integrates:

• Legacy West/East Coast Triangulation data
• New control points (1961–1968)

Rectified Skew Orthomorphic (RSO) Projection Parameters

For BT 1948 & BT68

Parameter	Value
Conversion Factor	1 chain = 20.11676512 m (Sears et al., 1927)
Projection Origin	φ₀ = 4° 00′ N, λ₀ = 115° 00′ E
Scale Factor (m₀)	0.99984
Azimuth (γ₀)	sin⁻¹(0.8) = 53° 19′ 56.9537″
False Easting/Northing	0 m (zero)

GDM2000 Updates for Borneo

• Retains all BT1948/BT68 parameters except:
  • New azimuth (γ₀): –sin⁻¹(–0.8) = 53° 18′ 56.91582″
  • Ellipsoid: Upgraded to GRS 80 (a = 6,378,137 m; 1/f = 298.2572221)

Datum Transformation (Timbalai 1948 → WGS 84)

From TR 8350.2 (Sarawak & Sabah):

Parameter	Value	Uncertainty
ΔX	–679 m	±10 m
ΔY	+669 m	±10 m
ΔZ	–48 m	±12 m

(Solution based on eight satellite stations.)

Reference

Mugnier, C.J. (2023). Coordinate Systems of the World: Datums and Grids. PP. 501–503. CRC Press. DOI: 10.1201/9781003307785-125