Tag: history

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Keadaan Melaka pada Tahun 1854 dan 270 Tahun Sebelumnya

https://www.penaminang.com/2014/08/sejarah-melaka-secara-ringkas.html

Oleh Shahabuddin Amerudin

Melaka adalah sebuah wilayah yang kaya dengan sejarah serta kepentingan geostrategik. Sejak penubuhannya sebagai sebuah kesultanan Melayu pada abad ke-15, Melaka telah menarik perhatian kuasa besar dunia kerana lokasinya yang strategik di Selat Melaka, yang merupakan laluan perdagangan utama antara Timur dan Barat. Pada tahun 1854, Alfred Russel Wallace, telah melawat Melaka dan memberikan pandangannya tentang keadaan wilayah ini. Bandingkan keadaan ini dengan catatan pelayar dan penulis Belanda Jan Huygen van Linschoten, yang melawat Melaka pada sekitar tahun 1580-an, 270 tahun sebelumnya. Artikel ini akan menilai perbezaan ketara dan perubahan yang berlaku di Melaka antara dua tempoh tersebut.

Pandangan Alfred Russel Wallace Mengenai Melaka pada Tahun 1854

Alfred Russel Wallace tiba di Melaka ketika era penjajahan British. Beliau mengunjungi bandar itu semasa ekspedisinya di Kepulauan Melayu dan membuat beberapa pemerhatian penting mengenai keadaan geografi, ekonomi, dan sosial bandar tersebut.

Pada tahun 1854, Melaka berada di bawah pemerintahan British sebagai sebahagian daripada Negeri-Negeri Selat (Straits Settlements). Namun, ketika ini, Melaka telah merosot sebagai pusat perdagangan utama jika dibandingkan dengan zaman kegemilangannya di bawah pemerintahan Kesultanan Melayu dan kemudiannya Portugis dan Belanda. Aktiviti perdagangan utama telah beralih ke Singapura dan Pulau Pinang, menyebabkan Melaka menjadi sebuah bandar yang lebih tenang dan kurang penting dari sudut ekonomi.

Wallace mencatatkan bahawa sebahagian besar aktiviti ekonomi Melaka ketika itu bergantung kepada perdagangan kecil-kecilan dan pertanian. Melaka tidak lagi menjadi pusat dagangan antarabangsa yang sibuk, tetapi masih mengekalkan beberapa aktiviti komersial tempatan, seperti penanaman lada hitam, gambir, dan hasil pertanian lain. Bandar ini juga mempunyai hubungan perdagangan yang terbatas dengan kawasan sekitarnya.

Dari segi sosial, Wallace menggambarkan penduduk Melaka pada 1854 sebagai masyarakat yang berbilang kaum, merangkumi orang Melayu, Cina, India, dan keturunan Eropah (terutamanya keturunan Portugis). Beliau mencatatkan bahawa walaupun bandar ini tidak lagi menjadi pusat politik yang utama, penduduk Melaka hidup dengan aman dan harmoni.

Kaum Cina memainkan peranan penting dalam aktiviti ekonomi Melaka, terutamanya dalam sektor perdagangan dan perniagaan. Wallace juga memberi perhatian kepada keturunan Portugis di Melaka, yang walaupun kecil bilangannya, masih mengekalkan beberapa elemen budaya dan bahasa Portugis.

Wallace mencatatkan bahawa banyak bangunan di Melaka ketika itu masih dipengaruhi oleh senibina Portugis dan Belanda, terutamanya kubu A Famosa dan gereja-gereja Katolik. Walaupun penjajahan British telah membawa perubahan dalam pentadbiran, Melaka masih mengekalkan banyak ciri-ciri fizikal dari zaman kolonial sebelumnya.

Keadaan Melaka Menurut Linschoten pada Abad ke-16

Sebelum Alfred Russel Wallace, Jan Huygen van Linschoten, seorang penulis dan pelayar Belanda, telah melawat Melaka pada akhir abad ke-16, sekitar 1580-an, ketika Melaka masih di bawah penjajahan Portugis. Linschoten menyajikan gambaran yang sangat berbeza tentang Melaka pada zamannya, ketika bandar ini adalah sebuah pelabuhan yang sangat sibuk dan penting.

Menurut Linschoten, Melaka pada abad ke-16 adalah pusat perdagangan antarabangsa yang sangat penting. Ia adalah destinasi utama bagi kapal-kapal dari seluruh dunia, termasuk kapal dari Arab, China, India, dan Eropah. Melaka bertindak sebagai pusat pertukaran barang dari Timur dan Barat, terutamanya rempah, sutera, dan barang-barang mewah lain.

Portugis mengawal pelabuhan ini dengan ketat dan cuba memonopoli perdagangan, walaupun kadang-kadang menghadapi persaingan sengit dari pedagang tempatan dan kuasa-kuasa lain seperti Kesultanan Aceh dan Kesultanan Johor.

Linschoten melaporkan bahawa Melaka pada abad ke-16 adalah sebuah bandar yang pelbagai etnik dan agama. Penduduk terdiri daripada orang Melayu, Cina, Arab, India, serta orang Eropah yang terdiri daripada Portugis dan peniaga dari Belanda serta negara-negara lain. Hubungan antara pelbagai etnik ini bersifat pragmatik kerana masing-masing bergantung kepada perdagangan.

Portugis, yang menduduki Melaka sejak tahun 1511, membawa pengaruh Katolik ke wilayah ini, yang boleh dilihat melalui pembinaan gereja-gereja dan pengembangan agama Katolik di kalangan masyarakat tempatan.

Linschoten menggambarkan Melaka sebagai sebuah bandar yang dibentengi dengan kuat oleh Portugis, terutamanya dengan pembinaan kubu A Famosa, yang menjadi salah satu simbol kekuatan Portugis di Asia Tenggara. Kota ini juga dipenuhi dengan bangunan komersial dan kediaman yang melambangkan kemakmuran dan kepentingan bandar ini sebagai pusat perdagangan serantau.

Perbandingan Keadaan Melaka antara Tahun 1580 dan 1854

Perbezaan paling ketara antara kedua-dua tempoh ialah kemerosotan peranan Melaka sebagai pusat perdagangan antarabangsa. Pada zaman Linschoten, Melaka adalah sebuah pelabuhan utama yang menghubungkan perdagangan dari Timur dan Barat, tetapi pada zaman Wallace, peranannya telah diambil alih oleh pelabuhan baru seperti Singapura. Ini disebabkan oleh beberapa faktor, termasuk kejatuhan Portugis dan peningkatan kuasa-kuasa kolonial lain seperti British.

Dalam tempoh 270 tahun tersebut, Melaka telah mengalami perubahan penguasaan kolonial. Pada zaman Linschoten, ia berada di bawah pemerintahan Portugis yang cuba memonopoli perdagangan dan mengembangkan pengaruh agama Kristian. Pada zaman Wallace, Melaka berada di bawah penjajahan British, yang lebih pragmatik dalam pentadbiran dan ekonomi, tetapi tidak menjadikan Melaka sebagai pelabuhan utama mereka.

Melaka kekal sebagai sebuah masyarakat berbilang kaum pada kedua-dua tempoh tersebut, namun terdapat perubahan dalam susunan penduduk. Pada zaman Linschoten, pengaruh Portugis dan Katolik sangat kuat, tetapi pada zaman Wallace, masyarakat Portugis telah mengecil, dan pengaruh British serta kaum Cina lebih dominan dalam ekonomi dan sosial.

Salah satu kesamaan antara kedua-dua tempoh ialah Melaka mengekalkan beberapa ciri fizikal utama seperti kubu A Famosa dan bangunan kolonial lain. Namun, pada zaman Wallace, bandar ini telah kehilangan beberapa kemegahannya sebagai pusat kuasa dan perdagangan antarabangsa yang besar, sebaliknya menjadi sebuah bandar sejarah yang tenang dengan kepentingan yang lebih kecil dalam politik dan ekonomi dunia.

Kesimpulan

Dari perbandingan antara catatan Alfred Russel Wallace pada tahun 1854 dan Linschoten pada akhir abad ke-16, jelas bahawa Melaka telah melalui transformasi besar dari sebuah pusat perdagangan antarabangsa yang sibuk kepada sebuah bandar kecil di bawah pentadbiran British. Meskipun ia masih mengekalkan beberapa ciri sejarah dan kepelbagaian etniknya, peranannya dalam perdagangan dan politik global telah merosot dengan ketara. Keadaan ini mencerminkan perubahan yang lebih besar dalam landskap geopolitik dan ekonomi Asia Tenggara sepanjang tempoh tersebut.

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King Abdulaziz Foundation Uses Advanced Technology to Map Prophet Muhammad’s Steps

King Abdulaziz Foundation Uses Advanced Technology to Map Prophet Muhammad’s Steps

By Shahabuddin Amerudin

Introduction

The integration of modern technology with historical research is transforming the way we understand and preserve the past. One such remarkable endeavor is the project initiated by the King Abdulaziz Foundation for Research and Archives (Darah), aimed at creating a comprehensive atlas documenting the life of the Prophet Muhammad. This initiative, which reflects Saudi Arabia’s dedication to preserving Islamic and Arab history, leverages advanced geospatial technologies to map and visualize the key locations and events from the Prophet’s life.

This paper explores the methodology, technological integration, and broader implications of this project, examining how it bridges traditional historical scholarship with cutting-edge technological advancements.

Historical Foundation and Significance

The Prophet Muhammad’s life holds immense significance in Islamic history, and documenting his journey is crucial for Muslims around the world. The King Abdulaziz Foundation, known as Darah, has a long-standing commitment to preserving Islamic heritage, and this project builds on its expertise in developing historical atlases. According to Sultan Alawairidhi, the official spokesperson of Darah, “The project stems from Darah’s commitment to preserving Islamic and Arab history, building on its expertise in developing historical atlases” (Alshammari, 2024).

This initiative was launched under the leadership of King Salman, who chaired Darah’s board when the project was initiated several years ago, and it continues to receive the support of Crown Prince Mohammed bin Salman and supervision from Prince Faisal bin Salman, chairman of Darah’s board of directors. The project aligns with Saudi Arabia’s broader goals of preserving its historical and religious heritage and sharing it with a global audience.

Methodology: The Fusion of Historical Research and Modern Technology

The atlas project relies on an extensive team of historians, researchers, and scholars from universities and research centers. These experts meticulously source data from original texts such as the Hadith, biographies (Sirah), and other Islamic historical literature. According to Alawairidhi, the foundation is “using reliable sources and advanced technologies to ensure the project’s accuracy” (Alshammari, 2024). This meticulous approach ensures the accuracy of the geographical and historical data being compiled.

A key aspect of this project is the integration of geographic information systems (GIS) to map and visualize the significant locations associated with the Prophet’s life. This involves determining geographic coordinates for important sites such as the Prophet’s birthplace in Makkah, his migration route to Madinah (Hijra), and the locations of key battles. These coordinates are cross-referenced with historical texts to ensure precision.

Technological Integration: GIS, Satellite Imagery, and Interactive Maps

The use of cutting-edge technologies is central to this project. The team at Darah employs geographic coordinates, satellite imagery, and GIS tools to document and map significant landmarks. “By harnessing these technologies in the service of the noble Prophetic biography, we aim to achieve the atlas’s objectives and collaborate with relevant institutions and specialized researchers in universities and scientific research centers,” Alawairidhi explained (Alshammari, 2024).

The atlas is designed to visually represent key moments in the Prophet’s life, transforming historical narratives into accessible visual formats. Satellite imagery, for example, helps to provide modern views of the ancient landscapes where historical events took place. GIS enables the overlay of these historical events onto current geographical maps, allowing for an interactive exploration of the Prophet’s journey.

An interactive online platform is planned for the project, which will allow users to explore these maps and timelines in detail. This platform will include zoomable maps, timelines of events, and additional resources such as diagrams, illustrations, and educational materials. The project is also set to include a mobile application, which will offer a similar user experience, with added geolocation features for visitors traveling to historical Islamic sites.

Visualization and Educational Tools

The atlas will not only serve as a scholarly reference but will also include a range of educational tools to engage different audiences. These tools include maps, illustrations, diagrams, and images that transform the Prophet’s life into visual pathways. By integrating both static and interactive elements, the atlas will serve as both an educational and devotional resource.

Moreover, specialized materials will be developed for children, using simplified maps and illustrations to make the Prophet’s biography accessible to younger audiences. This ensures that the project caters to a wide demographic, from scholars to laypeople and from adults to children.

Public Engagement and Outreach

In addition to the atlas, the project will involve the creation of supplementary materials and public engagement initiatives. An exhibition on the Prophet’s biography is planned, which will showcase key locations, maps, and visual materials from the atlas. This exhibition will serve as an interactive experience for visitors, allowing them to engage with the historical material in a meaningful way. There are also plans for specialized publications, conferences, and workshops that will further disseminate the findings of the project.

One of the project’s most significant elements is the planned international conference on the historical sites featured in the Prophet’s biography. This conference will bring together scholars from around the world to discuss the historical and religious significance of these sites and how they can be preserved and shared with future generations.

Conclusion

The King Abdulaziz Foundation’s atlas documenting the life of Prophet Muhammad is an ambitious and pioneering project that exemplifies the fusion of historical research with modern technology. By using GIS, satellite imagery, and interactive maps, the project offers a visual and educational representation of the Prophet’s life, making it accessible to a global audience.

As the project progresses, it promises to not only preserve Islamic history but also to serve as a scholarly resource and an educational tool for Muslims worldwide. The use of technology in this context demonstrates how modern advancements can be harnessed to preserve and share religious and cultural heritage in innovative ways. As Alawairidhi aptly stated, “We aim to achieve the atlas’s objectives and collaborate with relevant institutions and specialized researchers in universities and scientific research centers” (Alshammari, 2024), showcasing the project’s collaborative and forward-thinking nature.

References

Alshammari, H. (2024, June 5). King Abdulaziz Foundation uses advanced tech to map Prophet Muhammad’s steps. Arab News. Retrieved from https://www.arabnews.com/node/2524581/saudi-arabia

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The Evolution of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) and the Integration of Extended Reality (XR)

Extended Reality Maturity Model Overview

By Shahabuddin Amerudin

Abstract

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have evolved dramatically from traditional cartography to sophisticated 3D and immersive environments, culminating in the integration of Extended Reality (XR). This article explores the historical development of GIS, the technological advancements that led to the adoption of 3D GIS and immersive environments, and the emerging role of XR in GIS applications. The convergence of GIS and XR is analyzed, highlighting how Virtual Reality (VR), Augmented Reality (AR), and Mixed Reality (MR) are transforming spatial analysis, visualization, and decision-making processes.

1. Introduction

Geographic Information Systems (GIS) have been integral to spatial analysis, environmental modeling, and decision-making processes for decades. Traditionally, GIS was confined to 2D digital maps, but with technological advancements, the field has expanded to include 3D visualizations, immersive 3D environments, and, most recently, Extended Reality (XR) technologies. This article traces the evolution of GIS from traditional cartography to the modern era of XR, exploring how these advancements have transformed the way we interact with and analyze spatial data.

2. Historical Evolution of GIS

2.1 Traditional Cartography (6th Century BCE)

The origins of GIS can be traced back to traditional cartography, where maps were painstakingly hand-drawn to represent geographic features, landscapes, and physical models. These maps, while rudimentary, laid the foundation for spatial representation and analysis. Early maps, such as those by Anaximander and Eratosthenes in ancient Greece, served primarily as tools for navigation and exploration (Harley & Woodward, 1987). These early cartographers faced significant challenges, including limited accuracy and the inability to represent the Earth’s curvature on flat surfaces.

2.2 The Emergence of 2D GIS (1960s)

The 1960s marked a significant turning point with the introduction of digital technology, leading to the development of 2D GIS. Pioneering work by Roger Tomlinson, often referred to as the “father of GIS,” led to the creation of the Canada Geographic Information System, one of the first instances of a computerized GIS (Foresman, 1998). This system allowed for the storage, retrieval, and analysis of spatial data in digital form, revolutionizing the field of cartography. The ability to overlay multiple layers of spatial data enabled complex analyses that were previously impossible, laying the groundwork for modern GIS applications in urban planning, environmental management, and resource allocation (Burrough, 1986).

3. The Advent of 3D GIS

3.1 The Transition to 3D GIS (1990s)

By the 1990s, advancements in computer graphics, data processing, and geospatial technologies facilitated the transition from 2D to 3D GIS. Unlike 2D GIS, which represented the Earth’s surface as flat, 3D GIS introduced a new dimension, allowing for the visualization and analysis of terrain and spatial features in three dimensions. This development significantly enhanced the accuracy and realism of spatial representations, making it possible to model complex geographical phenomena.

  • 3D Visualization: 3D GIS enables the visualization of terrain, buildings, and other spatial features in three dimensions, providing a more realistic representation of the Earth’s surface. This capability is particularly valuable in fields such as urban planning and disaster management, where understanding the spatial relationships between different features is critical (Zlatanova, 2000).
  • 3D Flythroughs: A key feature of 3D GIS is the ability to simulate flythroughs over landscapes, offering dynamic perspectives and facilitating the exploration of large areas from multiple angles (Zlatanova & Verbree, 2004).
  • 3D Feature Data: The transition to 3D also brought about the ability to represent features with height, depth, and volume, which is crucial for applications such as hydrological modeling and building information modeling (BIM) (Yin, Guo, & Sun, 2011).
  • Image Drape: The technique of draping imagery over 3D surfaces has become a common practice in 3D GIS, enhancing visual realism and providing context for spatial data (Kraak & Ormeling, 2010).
  • 3D Analysis: The introduction of 3D GIS has also expanded analytical capabilities, allowing for more complex analyses such as visibility analysis, volumetric calculations, and slope analysis (Goodchild & Janelle, 2004).

4. Immersive 3D Environments

4.1 Development of Immersive 3D Environments (2010s)

The 2010s witnessed the advent of immersive 3D environments, where users could interact with spatial data in more engaging and intuitive ways. These environments were characterized by photorealistic 3D scenes, animated models, and dynamic environments, which provided a richer context for spatial analysis and decision-making.

  • Interactive Globe: One of the key innovations during this period was the development of interactive globes, such as Google Earth and NASA’s World Wind, which allowed users to explore the Earth’s surface in a 3D environment. These platforms enabled the visualization of complex geospatial data, such as climate patterns and population density, on a global scale (Sheppard & Cizek, 2009).
  • Photorealistic 3D Scenes: Advances in computer graphics and rendering techniques enabled the creation of photorealistic 3D scenes that closely resembled real-world environments. These scenes provided a more immersive experience for users, allowing them to visualize and analyze spatial data with greater accuracy (Kremers, 2009).
  • Animated 3D Models: The integration of animated 3D models into GIS applications added a dynamic component to spatial analysis, making it possible to simulate and visualize changes over time, such as urban growth, traffic patterns, and environmental changes (Kraak, 2003).
  • Dynamic Environments: The incorporation of real-time data feeds and simulations into 3D GIS environments allowed for the creation of dynamic environments that could respond to changing conditions. This capability is particularly valuable in disaster management and urban planning, where real-time data is crucial for decision-making (Goodchild, 2007).
  • Digital Twin: The concept of the digital twin— a virtual replica of a physical object or environment—emerged as a powerful tool in GIS. Digital twins are used for monitoring and analysis, allowing for the simulation of various scenarios and the assessment of potential impacts (Grieves & Vickers, 2017).

4.2 Realism and Interaction in Immersive 3D Environments

The realism and interaction in these immersive 3D environments were significantly enhanced by the integration of game engines, oriented imagery, and generative AI technologies. These innovations not only improved the visual fidelity of 3D environments but also made them more interactive and user-friendly.

  • Game Engine Integration: The use of game engines such as Unity and Unreal Engine in GIS applications enabled the creation of highly realistic and interactive 3D environments. These engines provided the tools needed to create complex simulations, such as virtual cities and landscapes, with detailed physics and lighting effects (Döllner, 2005).
  • Oriented Imagery: The integration of oriented imagery, including 360-degree georeferenced photography, added a new dimension to GIS, allowing users to experience spatial data from multiple perspectives. This technology is particularly useful in applications such as urban planning and tourism, where immersive visualizations can enhance understanding and decision-making (Gede, 2013).
  • Simulated VR (“Goggles Off”): Advances in VR technology have made it possible to create simulated VR experiences that do not require physical headsets. These experiences use advanced movement controls and physics to simulate real-world interactions, providing a more immersive experience for users (Berg & Vance, 2017).
  • Generative AI: The use of generative AI in GIS has opened new possibilities for creating realistic environments and scenarios. AI-driven tools can generate realistic landscapes, buildings, and other features based on spatial data, enhancing the realism and interactivity of 3D environments (Ritchie et al., 2021).

5. The Emergence of Extended Reality (XR) in GIS

5.1 The Role of XR in GIS (Present)

Extended Reality (XR), which encompasses Virtual Reality (VR), Augmented Reality (AR), and Mixed Reality (MR), represents the next frontier in GIS. XR technologies are transforming the way users interact with spatial data, offering fully immersive 3D environments that blend the physical and digital worlds.

  • Virtual Reality (VR): VR immerses users into a completely virtual space, replacing the current physical space with a digital twin or simulated environment. In GIS, geo-enriched VR allows for the exploration and interaction with spatially accurate representations of the physical world, providing a deeper understanding of spatial relationships and facilitating insights that were previously only achievable through physical presence (Gill & Lange, 2018).
  • Augmented Reality (AR): AR overlays digital objects onto the user’s physical space, enhancing the real world with additional information. In GIS, AR enables the placement of 3D GIS data in the real world, providing multi-dimensional insights that improve decision-making, collaboration, and productivity (Azuma, 1997).
  • Mixed Reality (MR): MR combines elements of both VR and AR, placing digital objects into both physical and virtual spaces. In GIS, geo-enriched MR connects digital and physical objects in a shared georeferenced space, enabling users to visualize, interact, and collaborate within a spatially enhanced environment. MR offers increased depth perception and higher fidelity interactions, bridging the gap between digital and physical worlds (Milgram & Kishino, 1994).

6. Applications of XR in GIS

The integration of XR technologies into GIS has opened up a wide range of applications across various fields, including urban planning, environmental management, education, and disaster response.

6.1 Urban Planning

Urban planners are increasingly using XR technologies to visualize and analyze urban spaces. AR and VR enable planners to overlay proposed developments onto existing environments, providing a more accurate representation of how new buildings, roads, and infrastructure will interact with the existing urban fabric (Hwangbo, 2010). This capability is particularly valuable in stakeholder engagement, as it allows citizens and decision-makers to experience proposed changes in a more immersive and understandable way.

6.2 Environmental Management

In environmental management, XR technologies are being used to simulate and visualize the impacts of various scenarios, such as climate change, deforestation, and urban sprawl. By immersing users in realistic 3D environments, XR allows for a deeper understanding of environmental processes and their potential impacts (Sheppard, 2012). This enhanced understanding can lead to more informed decision-making and better outcomes for environmental conservation.

6.3 Education and Training

XR technologies are also being used in education and training, providing students and professionals with immersive learning experiences. In GIS education, VR and AR can be used to simulate real-world scenarios, such as fieldwork or disaster response, allowing students to gain practical experience in a safe and controlled environment (Marr, 2019). These immersive experiences can enhance learning outcomes by providing a more engaging and interactive way to study spatial data and processes.

6.4 Disaster Response and Management

In disaster response and management, XR technologies are being used to simulate emergency scenarios and visualize real-time data in immersive 3D environments. By providing first responders and decision-makers with a more accurate and up-to-date representation of the situation on the ground, XR can improve the effectiveness of disaster response efforts and save lives (Tashakkori et al., 2020). AR and MR, in particular, are valuable tools for overlaying critical information, such as evacuation routes and hazard zones, onto the real-world environment, enabling quicker and more informed decision-making.

7. Challenges and Future Directions

Despite the many advantages of integrating XR into GIS, there are several challenges that need to be addressed. These include technical challenges related to the processing and visualization of large datasets in real-time, as well as issues related to user experience, data privacy, and the accessibility of XR technologies.

7.1 Technical Challenges

One of the main challenges in the integration of XR and GIS is the processing and visualization of large spatial datasets in real-time. XR applications require high-performance computing and graphics processing capabilities to render complex 3D environments and provide a seamless user experience. Advances in cloud computing and edge computing may offer solutions to these challenges by offloading processing tasks to remote servers, allowing for more efficient data processing and visualization (Li, 2019).

7.2 User Experience and Accessibility

User experience is another critical factor in the successful adoption of XR technologies in GIS. XR applications must be designed with the end-user in mind, ensuring that they are intuitive and easy to use. Additionally, there is a need to make XR technologies more accessible to a wider audience, including those with limited technical skills or access to advanced hardware. Developing user-friendly interfaces and affordable XR devices will be key to overcoming these barriers (Dünser, Grasset, & Billinghurst, 2008).

7.3 Data Privacy and Security

As XR technologies become more integrated with GIS, issues related to data privacy and security will become increasingly important. XR applications often rely on real-time data feeds, which may include sensitive information about users and their environments. Ensuring that this data is securely stored and transmitted will be critical to protecting user privacy and maintaining trust in XR applications (Roesner, Kohno, & Molnar, 2014).

8. Conclusion

The evolution of GIS from traditional cartography to XR represents a significant leap in the way spatial data is visualized, analyzed, and interacted with. As GIS continues to integrate with XR technologies, the possibilities for spatial analysis and decision-making will expand, offering more immersive, interactive, and insightful experiences. The future of GIS lies in its ability to blend digital and physical realities, creating environments that are not only visually stunning but also deeply informative.

9. References

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  • Sheppard, S. R. J., & Cizek, P. (2009). The ethics of Google Earth: Crossing thresholds from spatial data to landscape visualization. Journal of Environmental Management, 90(6), 2102-2117.
  • Tashakkori, H., Rajabifard, A., & Kalantari, M. (2020). A new 3D indoor/outdoor spatial model for indoor emergency response facilitation. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 168, 186-196.
  • Yin, Z., Guo, Q., & Sun, W. (2011). 3D-GIS-based urban energy system modeling and analysis. Energy and Buildings, 43(10), 2423-2432.
  • Zlatanova, S. (2000). 3D GIS for urban development. In Proceedings of the 5th Seminar on GIS in Developing Countries, 1-9.

Note: Image sourced from Esri (2024).

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HD GNSS – An Introduction

By Shahabuddin Amerudin

HD GNSS, or High-Definition Global Navigation Satellite System, refers to advanced positioning and navigation technology that enhances the accuracy and precision of satellite-based location services. It is an evolution of traditional GNSS systems like GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and BeiDou, designed to provide more accurate and reliable positioning information.

The concept of improving the accuracy of Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) has been an ongoing endeavor since the inception of GNSS technology itself. Here’s a brief overview of the evolution and context surrounding HD GNSS:

Early GNSS Development: The development of GNSS technology began with the launch of the first satellite-based navigation system, the U.S. Navy’s Transit system, in the 1960s. This system aimed to provide accurate positioning for military and maritime applications. Over the years, other GNSS systems, such as GPS (Global Positioning System), GLONASS (Global Navigation Satellite System), and more recently, Galileo and BeiDou, were launched to provide global positioning services.

Focus on Accuracy: While the early GNSS systems were primarily developed for military and navigation purposes, the civilian use of GNSS expanded rapidly. As various industries began relying on GNSS for positioning and navigation, the need for higher accuracy became apparent. The drive to enhance accuracy led to the development of techniques like Differential GPS (DGPS) and Real-Time Kinematic (RTK), which aimed to improve the accuracy of GNSS positioning.

Multi-Frequency and Multi-Constellation: The concept of using multiple frequencies and constellations to improve accuracy gained traction as more GNSS constellations were deployed. Multiple frequencies allowed for better error correction, and the integration of signals from multiple constellations increased satellite availability, especially in challenging environments.

Modern HD GNSS: The term “HD GNSS” gained prominence as a way to describe the advanced positioning capabilities that became possible with the evolution of GNSS technology. With the advent of multi-frequency, multi-constellation receivers and real-time correction services, positioning accuracy reached centimeter-level precision. HD GNSS solutions catered to a wide range of applications, from surveying and mapping to autonomous vehicles and precision agriculture.

Continual Advancements: The history of HD GNSS is closely tied to the ongoing advancements in satellite technology, receiver design, and data processing algorithms. Until today, researchers and engineers continued to explore ways to enhance GNSS accuracy further, potentially integrating new technologies such as quantum positioning systems and improved augmentation services.

HD GNSS incorporates various techniques and technologies to improve positioning accuracy, especially in challenging environments such as urban canyons, dense foliage, and areas with limited satellite visibility. Some key features and technologies associated with HD GNSS include:

  1. Multi-Frequency: HD GNSS receivers track multiple frequencies from different satellite constellations, such as L1, L2, L5, and others. This allows the receiver to mitigate errors caused by ionospheric delays and provides more accurate position solutions.
  2. Multi-Constellation: HD GNSS receivers utilize signals from multiple GNSS constellations, such as GPS, GLONASS, Galileo, and BeiDou. This diversification of satellite sources enhances satellite availability and improves accuracy.
  3. Real-Time Correction Services: HD GNSS often involves real-time correction services that provide accurate positioning corrections to the receiver. These services, such as RTK (Real-Time Kinematic) and PPP (Precise Point Positioning), enhance accuracy to centimeter or even millimeter levels.
  4. Advanced Algorithms: HD GNSS receivers employ advanced algorithms to process satellite signals and correct errors introduced by factors like multipath interference, signal obstructions, and atmospheric disturbances.
  5. Antenna Design: The design of the GNSS antenna plays a crucial role in HD GNSS accuracy. Antennas are designed to minimize interference, reduce multipath effects, and optimize signal reception.
  6. High-Performance Chips: Modern HD GNSS receivers use high-performance chipsets that are capable of processing multiple signals and performing advanced calculations quickly and accurately.
  7. Precise Timing Applications: HD GNSS is not only used for position determination but also for applications that require highly accurate timing synchronization, such as telecommunications, financial transactions, and scientific research.

HD GNSS technology finds applications in various industries, including surveying, mapping, construction, agriculture, autonomous vehicles, maritime navigation, and more. It enables professionals and systems to achieve higher levels of accuracy, enabling more precise decision-making and improved operational efficiency.

Suggestion for Citation:
Amerudin, S. (2023). HD GNSS - An Introduction. [Online] Available at: https://people.utm.my/shahabuddin/?p=6622 (Accessed: 14 August 2023).
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History of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Development: An Overview

By Shahabuddin Amerudin

The development of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) dates back to the 19th century, when the use of geographic information to address complex issues began. In 1832, French geographer Charles Picquet produced an early version of a GIS by creating a map-based representation of cholera spread in Paris using color gradients. This marked the earliest application of spatial analysis in epidemiology.

In 1854, English physician John Snow expanded this concept by mapping a cholera outbreak in London and linking it to contaminated water. This illustrated the problem-solving potential of maps in epidemiology. The groundwork laid during this time led to the emergence of modern GIS.

During the 20th century, several key players like the Harvard Laboratory for Computer Graphics, Canada Geographic Information System, Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI), and UK’s Experimental Cartography Unit shaped the field. However, it wasn’t until satellite imaging technology emerged that GIS gained commercial traction, with ESRI seizing the opportunity.

In the early 20th century, a printing technique called photozincography allowed maps to separate layers for vegetation, water, and developed land, resembling GIS. Yet, it lacked analytical capabilities.

The first significant computer-geography fusion was in 1959, when Waldo Tobler introduced MIMO (Map In–Map Out), a system to apply computers to cartography. Over time, GIS evolved from a concept to a science, with Roger Tomlinson’s work on the Canadian Geographic Information System (CGIS) and the emergence of raster and vector data analysis methods as milestones.

The 1960s saw GIS shaped by key individuals, adapting cartography and geography to the emerging computer technology. In the mid-1960s, SYMAP and GRID established foundations for raster and vector data analysis, respectively. Society’s environmental concerns further fueled GIS development.

The late 1970s and early 1980s marked the adoption of GIS by national agencies and academic institutions. ESRI became a dominant player, and commercial GIS software vendors emerged. Open-source GIS like GRASS began moving GIS from research to business environments.

Since the late 1980s, usability improvement and mainstream adoption have been key focuses. The 1990s to 2010s brought significant technological advancements, expanding GIS’s capabilities. Open-source GIS software like Quantum GIS (QGIS) gained prominence, and GIS became vital in tandem with the Internet of Things (IoT), artificial intelligence (AI), and predictive analytics.

Today, GIS applications encompass crime mapping, public health strategies, and more. As it integrates with web, cloud computing, real-time data, and IoT, GIS addresses challenges such as population growth, resource depletion, and pollution. The history of GIS showcases the efforts of researchers, programmers, and analysts who paved the way for versatile tools benefiting various organizations.

Suggestion for Citation:
Amerudin, S. (2023). History of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) Development: An Overview. [Online] Available at: https://people.utm.my/shahabuddin/?p=6599 (Accessed: 14 August 2023).
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The Evolution of GIS Software Vendors: From Early Beginnings to Modern Advancements

By Shahabuddin Amerudin

GIS (Geographic Information System) software has come a long way since the first systems were developed in the 1960s. From humble beginnings as experimental research tools, GIS software applications have become essential components of numerous industries, including urban planning, environmental management, and disaster response. In this article, we will take a look at the progress of GIS software vendors from the earliest days of GIS to the present day.

The earliest GIS software systems were developed in the 1960s and 1970s by researchers at universities and government agencies. These systems were experimental and primarily used for research purposes, but they laid the foundation for the development of more sophisticated GIS software applications in the following decades. One notable early system was the Canada Geographic Information System (CGIS), which was developed by the Canadian government in the early 1960s (Foresman, 1998).

The 1970s and 1980s saw the birth of a number of companies that specialised in the production of commercial GIS software. These companies included Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI), Intergraph, and AutoDesk.These systems were still rather complicated and expensive, but they were getting easier to operate and more accessible to those who were not specialists in the field. They embarked on the process of creating and distributing GIS software solutions for a variety of business sectors. These companies built software applications that were both more user-friendly and more affordably priced than the systems that came before them, which made GIS available to a larger variety of customers (Longley et al., 2015).

The 1990s saw a significant expansion in the availability and use of GIS software. The introduction of Windows-based operating systems and the development of user-friendly interfaces made GIS software more accessible to a wider range of users. This, in turn, led to an increase in demand for GIS software, particularly in industries such as urban planning, transportation, and environmental management. GIS software vendors began to focus on integrating GIS with other software systems, such as enterprise resource planning (ERP) and customer relationship management (CRM) software. This integration helped to further expand the use of GIS beyond traditional mapping and spatial analysis applications (Batty, 2013). One of the major advancements in GIS software occurred in the 1990s with the introduction of web-based GIS. This allowed users to access GIS data and applications through a web browser, making GIS more accessible to a wider range of users. 

The 2000s saw the emergence of cloud-based GIS software, which allowed users to access GIS applications from anywhere with an Internet connection. This technology has helped to democratize GIS, making it more accessible to smaller organizations and individuals (Goodchild, 2010). This has made GIS more flexible and scalable, and has allowed organizations to more easily share and collaborate on GIS data. This led to an explosion in the availability and diversity of GIS software applications, as well as the emergence of new business models based on software-as-a-service (SaaS) and cloud computing.

In the 2010s, the GIS industry saw significant developments, including the emergence of cloud-based GIS software, which provided users with access to GIS software and data from any location. The use of mobile GIS also increased during this period, enabling GIS professionals to collect and analyze data in the field. GIS software vendors, such as TerraGo and Trimble, developed mobile software solutions for real-time data collection and analysis. Additionally, companies such as Tableau and QGIS improved the visualization of spatial data, allowing users to create sophisticated data visualizations, including maps, charts, and graphs. These advancements made GIS more accessible, affordable, and easy to use for smaller organizations and individuals. (ESRI, 2010; Trimble, 2013; Tableau, 2013).

The 2020s have seen several significant advancements in the GIS industry, including the integration of AI and machine learning into GIS software solutions. GIS software vendors such as ESRI and Google have developed AI and ML tools that allow users to automate tasks and gain new insights into spatial data (Google, 2021).. Additionally, the use of open source GIS software has become increasingly popular, with vendors like QGIS and GeoServer offering solutions that are comparable or even better than proprietary GIS software (GeoServer, 2021). With the increasing amount of spatial data being collected, GIS software vendors are also placing greater emphasis on data privacy and security. Trimble and ESRI are among the companies that have developed software solutions that provide users with greater control over their data and help them comply with data privacy regulations (Trimble, 2021).. These advancements are paving the way for new possibilities in the GIS industry and are helping to make spatial data analysis more accessible and secure than ever before.

As the use of GIS continues to expand across industries and sectors, GIS software vendors are also facing new challenges. One of the biggest challenges is ensuring the security of GIS data, particularly as more organizations move to cloud-based GIS solutions. GIS software vendors must implement robust security measures, such as encryption and access controls, to protect GIS data from unauthorized access and cyberattacks.

Overall, the progress of GIS software vendors over the past several decades has been impressive, and the future looks bright for the continued development and application of GIS technology. As GIS software becomes increasingly accessible and user-friendly, it is likely that we will see even more widespread adoption of GIS technology across industries and fields, leading to new insights and innovations that can help us better understand and manage our world. 

References:

Batty, M. (2013). The New Science of Cities. MIT Press.

ESRI. (2010). Esri releases ArcGIS Online. https://www.esri.com/about/newsroom/announcements/arcgis-online/

Foresman, T. W. (1998). History of Geographic Information Systems. In J. Pickles (Ed.), Ground Truth: The Social Implications of Geographic Information Systems (pp. 3-24). Guilford Press.

GeoServer. (2021). GeoServer. https://geoserver.org/

Google. (2021). Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning. https://cloud.google.com/solutions/ai-ml/

Goodchild, M. F. (2010). Twenty Years of Progress: GIScience in 2010. Journal of Spatial Information Science, 1(1), 3-20.

Kitchin, R. (2013). Big Data and Human Geography: Opportunities, Challenges and Risks. Dialogues in Human Geography, 3(3), 262-267.

Longley, P., Goodchild, M., Maguire, D., & Rhind, D. (2015). Geographic Information Systems and Science (4th ed.). John Wiley & Sons.

Tableau. (2013). Data Visualization Software. https://www.tableau.com/products

Trimble. (2013). Trimble Announces New Mobile GIS Solutions for Field Workforce Management. https://www.trimble.com/news/release.aspx?id=090513a

Trimble. (2021). Trimble GeoPrivacy. https://geospatial.trimble.com/geo-privacy

 

Suggestion for Citation:
Amerudin, S. (2023). The Evolution of GIS Software Vendors: From Early Beginnings to Modern Advancements. [Online] Available at: https://people.utm.my/shahabuddin/?p=6325 (Accessed: 11 April 2023).
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Ancient Maps and Modern Maps

Ancient maps and modern maps differ in a number of ways, including their level of accuracy, the information they convey, and the methods used to create them.

  1. Accuracy: Ancient maps were often created using limited information and technology, which resulted in less accurate depictions of the world. Modern maps, on the other hand, are created using advanced technology such as satellite imagery, aerial photography, and GPS, which allows for much higher levels of accuracy.

  2. Information: Ancient maps often focused on religious or mythological themes, rather than geographical information. They were also often symbolic and artistic in nature. Modern maps, on the other hand, focus on providing accurate and detailed geographical information, such as roads, cities, rivers, and topographical features.

  3. Methods: Ancient maps were often created using manual methods, such as drawing by hand or using simple tools like compasses and rulers. Modern maps are created using advanced technology, such as GIS (Geographic Information Systems) software, satellite imagery, and aerial photography.

  4. Representation: Ancient maps were often represented in the form of manuscripts, scrolls, or on stone tablets and were usually limited to the regions and cultures that produced them. Modern maps, on the other hand, are widely available, and digital maps are easily accessible and are often interactive.

  5. Purpose: Ancient maps were often created for religious, spiritual or political purposes, while modern maps are primarily created for practical uses such as navigation, transportation and land use.

It’s worth noting that some ancient maps were created with the best information and technology available at the time, and they could be accurate and useful for their intended purpose. However, compared to modern maps, ancient maps often lacked the level of accuracy and detail that is possible with current technology and methods. Additionally, the purpose of ancient maps was often more symbolic or religious than practical, and they often included elements such as gods, myths, and legends that were not found on modern maps.

In summary, the main differences between ancient and modern maps are their level of accuracy, the information they convey, and the methods used to create them. Ancient maps were often less accurate and focused on symbolic or religious themes, while modern maps are created using advanced technology and methods and focus on providing accurate and detailed geographical information.

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The First Man Travel The Globe

The first recorded journey around the globe was completed by the Spanish explorer, Ferdinand Magellan. He set sail from Spain in 1519 with a fleet of five ships, and after several years of travel, one of his ships, the Victoria, completed the journey and returned to Spain in 1522, with a crew of 18 men, being the first to circumnavigate the globe.

Magellan’s expedition was not an easy one, as the crew had to face many challenges such as storms, mutinies, and hostile encounters with local people. Additionally, Magellan himself died in the Philippines, during a battle with the local people. However, the expedition was a major achievement and opened the way for further exploration and trade around the world.

It’s worth noting that, technically, only 18 of the original crew of about 270 men completed the entire journey, but it is still considered as the first circumnavigation of the globe.

In the other hand, there is an evidence to suggest that a Malay man, Panglima Awang, also known as Panglima Hitam, circumnavigated the globe several decades before the voyage of Ferdinand Magellan. However, there is limited historical documentation and evidence about his journey, and the details of his voyage are not widely known or accepted by historians.

The Malay Annals, a historical text from the 15th century, describes Panglima Awang’s voyage as a diplomatic mission to establish trade relations with various foreign countries. According to the text, Panglima Awang, also known as Panglima Hitam, set sail from the Malay Peninsula in the 14th century and visited several countries including China, Africa, and Arabia before returning home.

It’s worth noting that the Malay Annals is a primary source and some historians consider it as legend or myth, therefore the veracity of Panglima Awang’s voyage around the globe is still debated among historians.